The Hakka language 客家話 is found in eight of China's provinces, GuangDong 廣東, GuangXi 廣西, Fujian 福建, JiangXi 江西, Hunan 湖南, SiChuan 四川, HaiNan 海南 and Taiwan 臺灣. There is a great deal of similarity between the Hakka dialects of each province, but each Hakka dialect also has its differences in the phonology, vocabulary and grammar.
When someone speaks of Hakka, they will often mean the Meixian dialect 梅縣話. Usually Meixian dialect is considered the representative dialect. In the phonology, Meixian retains [m n ŋ p t k] ending rhymes, two entering tones, and displays regular correspondences with ancient Chinese phonology. Below we take the phonology, vocabulary and grammar in a simple way to show the main points of Meixian Hakka.
1. Aspects of MeiXian Phonology
1.1 Initials1. Ancient fully voiced initals 古全濁聲母字, irrespective of level or oblique tones 不論平仄, that are obstruents 塞音 or affricates 塞擦音, are now pronounced as aspirated unvoiced initials 送氣清音. For example:
婆 並母 pʰɔ11 馮 奉母 pʰuŋ11 桃 定母 tʰau11 罪 從母 tsʰui53 徐 邪母 tsʰi11 謝 邪母 tsʰia53 腸 澄母 tsʰɔŋ11 床 崇母 tsʰɔŋ11 酬 禪母 tsʰu11 舅 群母 kʰiu44
Only a few other characters for example
叛 並母 pan31 笨 並母 pun53 辮 並母 pin44 / piɛn44 餞 從母 tsiɛn53 墜 澄母 tsui53 佢 群母 ki11
2. Ancient 非 initial characters have both [f v] labiodental sounds 齒唇音 and [p pʰ m] bilabials 雙唇音 readings. For instance:
Ancient
InitialExamples 非母 夫 fu44 粉 fun21 風 fuŋ44 疿 pi53 斧 pu21 腹 puk1 敷母 副 fi53 肺 fui53 芬 fun44 豐 fuŋ44 殕 pʰu21 捧 puŋ21 奉母 婦 fu53 房 fɔŋ11 佛 fut5 肥 pʰi11 扶 pʰu11 馮 pʰuŋ11 微母 武 ʋu44 未 ʋi53 萬 ʋan53 尾 mi44 蚊 mun44 襪 mat1 Bilabial readings form a stratum of older readings, labiodentals initials were a later development. There are times when one character may have two readings, indicating a difference of use. For instance "發" [pot11] and [fat11] both readings are listed below
[pɔt] [fat] 發病 pɔt1 pʰiaŋ53 發酵 fat1 kau53 發癲 pɔt1 tiɛn44 發冷 fat1 laŋ44 發風落雨 pɔt1 fuŋ4 lɔk5 i21 發寒發燒 fat1 hɔn11 fat1 sau44 發大水 pɔt1 tʰai535 sui21 發熱氣 fat1 ŋiat5 hi53 發性 pɔt1 siaŋ53 發譴 fat1 kʰian21 發火 pɔt1 fɔ21 發火 fat1 fo21 發財 pɔt1 tsʰɔi11 發財 fat1 tsʰɔi11 The final two need some explanation. Both 發火 and both 發財 are written exactly the same, but relies on the leading syllable to distinguish the exact meaning. The former 發財 is a 'pleasant' 美稱 rendering, which some people would place 財 with the illness radical 病.
3. Ancient 精 見 曉 initials are divided into 尖團 composed of dental silibants (jianyin 尖音) and alveolo-palatal affricates / fricatives (tuanyin 團音). When there is a rhymes with -i- as a medial 齊齒呼韻母, ancient 精 initial characters are now read [ts tsʰ s] initials, ancient 見曉 initial characters are now read [k kʰ h].
(曉 is unlisted... Dylan)
Initial Examples 精 酒雀 [ts] 趨槍 [tsʰ] 修想 [s] 見 九腳 [k] 區腔 [kʰ] 休響 [h] 1.2 Rhymes
1.3 Special points about Tones1. Ancient 魚虞 rhymes with 精 initials are now read [i], ancient 知章 initials characters are now read [u]; 莊 initial characters now read [i.]; 摸 rhyme characters with 精 initials characters are also read [i.].
Initial Examples 精 徐 tsʰi11 緒 si53 娶 tsʰi21 趣 tsʰi53 鬚 si44 知章 煮 tsu21 除 tsʰu11 住 tsʰu53 書 su44 樹 su53 莊 阻 tsi.21 鋤 tsʰi.11 助 tsʰi.53 梳 si.44 蔬 si.44 精 祖 tsi.21 粗 tsʰi.44 醋 tsʰi.53 蘇 si.44 素 si.53 2. Ancient 蟹攝 rhymes first division open syllable 一等開口 characters are now read [ai] or [ɔi], not restricted to any condition (labial initials like 艾埃 characters not taken into account), but those characters read [ai]. and those characters read [ɔi], like other Hakka dialects (like Hakka dialects of Fujian YongDing 福建永定 and Sichuan ChengDu TanSi 四川成都潭寺) are mostly the same.
獃 tai44 待怠殆態太泰 tʰai53 戴帶 tai53 乃 nai44 奈耐 nai53 賴 lai53 災栽 tsai44 宰載 tsai21 再 tsai53 猜 tsʰai44 蔡在 tsʰai53 彩采睬 tsʰai21 才材裁 tsʰai11 孩 hai11 藹 ai53 胎 tʰɔi44 臺苔抬 tʰɔi11 貸代袋 tʰɔi53 來 lɔi11 載 tsɔi53 財 tsʰɔi11 在 tsʰɔi44 腮鰓 sɔi44 賽 sɔi53 該 kɔi44 改 kɔi21 蓋丐 kɔi53 開 kʰɔi44 凱 kʰɔi21 楷溉慨 kʰɔi53 呆 ŋɔi11 礙 ŋɔi53 海 hɔi21 害亥 hɔi53 哀 ɔi44 愛 pɔ53
Amongst them, 在 has two readings [tsʰɔi44 tsʰai53], whose readings are not the same, in use they are close, but 在 character is like "活看" in speech, and must be used as a postfix, never as a prefix, that is : 佢還在 (他還活看 he is still around) ki11 han11 tsʰɔi44.
3. Ancient 梗攝 rhymes have literary and colloquial pronunciations. In the literary reading [ən en] there is a corresponding collqouial reading [aŋ], and where the literary [in] reading have colloquial corresponding reading [iaŋ]. For example
Literary Colloquial 程 工程 tsʰən11 程 姓程 tsʰaŋ11 成 成功 sən11 成 唔成 saŋ11 生 生活 sen44 生 生死 saŋ44 爭 斗爭 tsen44 爭 爭食 tsaŋ44 平 和平 pʰin11 平 平地 pʰiaŋ11 命 命令 min53 命 好命 miaŋ53 "梗" character's literary and colloquial readings depend on the presence of [u] (open/close) and worth noting. 梗 桔梗 literary [kɛn21], from 廣韻 古杏切 which tallies. 梗 樹梗 [kuaŋ21] from 廣韻 古猛切.
Meixian dialect tones have some peculiarities. The six tones contain ping 平 and ru 入 tones which have split into yin yang registers with repsect to voicing of a syllable's initial. For the other tones, please refer to the following table. The small characters represents a small number of characters. It will be discussed afterwards.
A
n
c
i
e
n
tT
o
n
e
sVoicing Modern Tones 古 -清濁 陰平 44 陽平 11 上聲 31 去聲 53 陰入 1 陽入 5 平 清 多開三安 次濁 拿毛蚊聾 來牛人鄰 全濁 疲雛駝崎 禾爬圖田 上 清 錶組匪估 海走酒碗 次濁 馬尾暖呂 雨五兩老 全濁 社柱舅早 婦部柿腎 去 清 據蛻片憲 菜豹去劍 濁 忌偽悶創 路賣睡飯 入 清 急割八節 次濁 脈襪虐肉 麥納臘月 全濁 習舌滑直 1. Ancient 平 tone sonorants and fully voiced intial characters, have a few characters today that are read in 陰平 tone, with further investigation, we find that:
摩 mɔ44 囉 lɔ44 拿 na44 毛 mau33 援媛 ian44 鱗 lin44 籠聾 luŋ44 蚊 mun44 于盂 i44 疲裴 pʰi44 渠 kʰi44 奚兮 hi4 雛疵 tsʰi.44 馳 si.44 髯拈 ŋiam44 藩 fan44 掮 kian4 痕 hɛn44 鯨 kin44 昂 ŋɔŋ442. Ancient 上 tone has many sonorant initial characters in the Yin Ping 陰平 tone. For example:
馬 碼 瑪 螞 ma44 惹 ŋia44 也 野 ia44 每 美 尾 mi44 裏 ti44 你 汝 爾 ni44 里 理 鯉 呂 鋁 禮 li44 語 ŋi44 一 羽 禹 與 乳 i44 姆 mɛ44 我 ŋɔ44 母 拇 mu44 武 ʋu44 魯 櫓 鹵 lu44 有 友 酉 iu44 買 mai44 乃 奶 nai44 釐 lui44 累 lui44 卯鉚 mau44 惱 nau44 咬 ŋau44 某畝牡 mɛu44 腩 nam44 冉 ŋiam44 檁廩 lim44 滿 man44 輓 ʋan44 懶 lan44 研 ŋan44 媛 ian44 免 mɛn44 輦攆 liɛn44 暖 non44 軟 ŋion44 尹永 iun44 忍 ŋiun44 猛蟒 maŋ44 冷 laŋ44 領 liaŋ44 往 ʋɔŋ44 養癢 iɔŋ44 兩 liɔŋ44 冗 iuŋ443. Ancient 上 tone fully voiced 全濁 initials have characters which now have Yin Ping tone readings. For example
社 sa44 下 ha44 被婢 pʰi44 雉 tsʰi.44 巨拒距徛技妓 kʰi44 坐 tsʰɔ44 簿 pʰu44 柱苧 tsʰu44 臼舅 kʰiu44 弟 tʰai44 舐 sai44 在 tsʰɔi44 浩皓 hau44 稻 tʰau44 鰾 pʰiau44 淡 tam44 拌 pʰan44 辮 pin44 / piɛn44 斷 tʰɔn44 旱 hɔn44 鯇 ʋan44 很狠 hɛn44 近菌 kʰiun44 蚌 pʰɔŋ44 上 sɔŋ44 動 tʰuŋ44 重 tsʰuŋ444. Ancient 入 tone unvoiced initials are now YinRu tone, fully voiced initials are now Yang Ru characters, and there is no need for examples. However, for ancient sonorant initial syllable characters, some have become YinRu whilst some have become YangRu, which are now seen in the following:
Ancient sonorant initial Ru tones now read Yin Ru character include:
衲 nap1 攝鑷捏攝 ŋiap1 粒笠 lep1 蔑襪 mat1 癩 lat1 訖鎳櫱 ŋiat1 覓陌 met1 域 ʋet1 劣 lɔt1 溺 nit1 日 ŋit1 囫 ʋut1 脈 mak1 額 ŋiak5 膜漠幕瘼 mɔk1 諾 nɔk1 虐瘧 ŋiɔk1 躍 iɔk1 木沐目 muk1 祿碌 luk1 六陸 liuk1 肉 ŋiuk1 育 iuk1The 攝 character as in "攝影 to photograph", has two readings with ancient initials 書 and 奶 . Today, it is read with 日 initial.
Ancient sonorant Ru tones now read with YangRu tone include:
納吶 nap5 臘蠟鑞 lap5 業 ŋiap5 葉頁 iap5 立 lip5 入 ŋip5 末沫茉 mut5 辣 lat5 月 ŋiat5 悅閱越曰粵 iat5 滅默密蜜篾 met5 列裂咧冽洌 liet5 捋 lɔt5 匿 nit5 栗律力歷靂肋勒率慄 lit5 逸翼亦奕弈役疫譯液腋易 it5 麥 mak5 曆 lak5 逆 ŋiak5 莫 mɔk5 落洛烙絡酪駱樂 lɔk5 鄂鱷顎愕萼嶽岳樂噩 ŋɔk5 略掠 liɔk5 弱 ŋiɔk5 若藥浴 iɔk5 目牧穆睦苜 muk5 鹿麓轆 luk5 綠錄戳 liuk5 玉獄 ŋiuk5 欲慾辱褥 iuk5目 can be read with a YinRu and YangRu tone with each having a different usage, meaning 眼睛 (the eyes) when read with YinRu muk1, but 目錄 (catalogue list) has a YangRu tone muk5.
5. 兒 postfix [-e] and its reading depend on the character preceeding it. Please refer to the table below.
# rhyme ending [-ɛ] reading Character examples 1 m [-mɛ] 蠶兒 tsʰam11 mɛ 鉗兒 kʰiam1 mɛ 2 n [-ne] 凳兒 ten5355 nɛ 風停兒 fuN4435 tʰin11 nɛ 3 ŋ [-ŋɛ] 甕兒 vuŋ535 ŋɛ 病輕兒 pʰiaŋ53 kʰiaŋ4435 ŋɛ 4 p [-pɛ] 鴨兒 ap1 pɛ 毛插兒 mau4435 tsʰap11 pe 5 t [-tɛ] 刷兒 sɔt1 tɛ 禾筆兒 vɔ11 pit1 tɛ 6 k [-ɛ] 褥兒 iuk5 ɛ 桷兒 kɔk1 ɛ 7 i [-iɛ] 溪兒 hai4435 ɛ 來兒 lɔi11 iɛ 8 u [-ʋɛ] 冒兒 mai5355 ɛ --兒 kʰiau5355 ʋɛ 9 i. [-ɛ] 梳兒 si.4435 ɛ 狗牸兒 kɛu21 tsʰi.5355 ɛ 10 a [-ɛ/-ʋɛ] 架兒 ka5355 ɛ 麻兒 ma11 ʋɛ 11 ɛ [-ɛ/-iɛ] 雞兒 ke4435 ɛ --兒 kɛ21 iɛ 12 ɔ [-e/-ʋɛ] 靴兒 hiɔ4435 ɛ 石螺兒 sak5 lɔ11 ɛ As the table shows, [-ɛ] changes depending on the preceeding syllable ending.
If the preceeding syllable ends in rhyme
[m n ŋ p], then [-ɛ] becomes [mɛ nɛ ŋɛ and pɛ] [k] [i.], then [-ɛ] becomes [ɛ] [t], then [-ɛ] becomes [tɛ], although in a small number of cases [lɛ] [i u], then [-ɛ] becomes [iɛ ʋɛ] [a ɔ], then [-ɛ] becomes [iɛ] or [ʋɛ] [ɛ], then [-ɛ] becomes [iɛ]
2. Special points in the Meixian dialect vocabulary can be summed the the following three sections:
1. Meixian dialect personal pronouns 人稱代詞, demonstratives 指示代詞, interrogatives 疑問代詞 are of special interest, please refer to the table below.
捱 ŋai11 你 n11 佢 ki11 I you he / she / it 捱丁人 ŋai11 tɛn4435 ŋin11 你丁人 n11 tɛn4435 ŋin11 佢丁人 ki11 tɛn4435 ŋin11 we you they 捱兩儕 ŋai11 liɔŋ31 sa11 你兩儕 n11 liɔŋ31 sa11 佢兩儕 ki11 liɔŋ31 sa11 the two of us the two of you the two of them 捱個 ŋai kɛ53 你個 n11 kɛ53 佢個 ki11 kɛ53 ŋa44 ŋiɛ44 kiɛ44 ŋa4435 kɛ53 ŋiɛ4435 kɛ53 kiɛ4435 kɛ53 mine your('s) their('s) 這個 ɛ31 kɛ53 那個 kɛ5344 kɛ53 哪個 ŋai5355 kɛ53 kɛ31 kɛ53 this that which 這兜 ɛ31 tɛu44 那兜 kɛ53 tɛu44 哪兜 ŋai53 tɛu44 ke31 teu44 these those which 這兒 ɛ31 -ɛ 那兒 kɛ5355 -iɛ 哪兒 ŋai5355 -iɛ kɛ31 -ɛ here there where 恁兒 an31 -nɛ 那恁兒 kɛ5355 an31 -nɛ 樣兒 ŋiɔŋ5355 -ŋɛ like this / this way like that / that way how 脈個 mak11 kɛ53 樣般 ŋiɔŋ53 pan44 幾多 ki31 tɔ44 what how to do how many / how much (捱 should be person radical instead of hand radical, and 恁 was not in the original.)
In the table, some items have alternative pronunciations, for instance 這兒 ɛ31/kɛ31 -ɛ indicates [ɛ31 -ɛ] and [kɛ31 -ɛ] readings. 這, 那, 哪, and 樣 characters in "這個, 那個, 哪個, and 樣般" have assigned readings; 兜 and 脈 in 這兜 and 脈個, respectively, are homophone characters.
"捱個" means "我的 my", altogether, there are three readings. As in "我的書 my book" can be pronounced [ŋai11 kɛ53 su44], [ŋa44 su44], [ŋa4435 kɛ53 su44]. When one wants to say "書是我的 the book is mine" it can be pronounced [su4453 hɛ5355 ŋai11 kɛ53], [su4435 hɛ53 ŋa4435 kɛ53], but it is not possible to say [su44 hɛ53 ŋa44]. Also, "你個", "佢個" in speech is used in a similar fashion to that of "捱個".
2. Meixian dialect's "個" apart from being used as a classifier or measure word 量詞, maybe used in the same way that (Mandarin) Beijing dialect 北京話 uses "的". For example: 大個, 細個, 肥個, 瘦個, 紅個, 白個, 買個, 食個, 捱個, 你個, 做工個, 做生意個, ... , etc.
3. Meixian dialect is spoken by overseas Chinese and when those settled abroad return to their ancestral villages, they also bring home words that have entered the vocabulary of Hakka from these other countries after living there for a long while. For example "繫喇西" ke5355 la11 si44 (to wear or tie a tie 打領帶, in Indonesian it is 領帶 is "dasi"), 食羅帝 sət5 lɔ11 ti53 (each biscuits or eat bread, Indonesian call biscuits and bread "roti"), 短硈兒 tɔn31 kat5 -ɛ (拐杖 walking stick in Indonisian is "tong kat").
3.Mexian Grammar can be discussed by looking at three main points:
1. MeiXian dialect "兒" [-ɛ] postfix can follow a preceeding component as summarised in the following seven cases:
A. "Noun + 兒" 兒 [-ɛ] is used similarly to Beijing dialect use of 兒 {er} as a postfix to nouns. For example:2. Meixan dialect clause with 有 characters in, '有' can be used in verbs or verb-object constructs as a prefix, and also may appear after a verb or within a verb-object construct, an equivalent designation of "已成 has completed". For example:
桃兒 [tʰau11 -ʋɛ] peach
侄兒 [tsʰət5 -tɛ] nephew, neice
刀兒 [tau4435 -ʋɛ] knife
凳兒 [tɛn5355 -nɛ] chair, stool
B. "Noun + 肚/兜 + 兒" 兒 [-ɛ] is used similarly to Beijing dialect use of 裏 {li} = inside, and "肚 兜" in speech is optional. For example:
鄉兒 [hiɔŋ4435 -ŋɛ] in the village
鄉肚兒 [hiɔŋ4435 tu31 -vɛ] in the village城兒人 [saŋ11 -ŋɛ3 ŋin11] people in the town
城肚兒人 [saŋ11 tu31 -vɛ ŋin11] people in the town水兜兒 [sui31 tɛu4435 -vɛ] in the water
手兜兒 [su31 tɛu4435 -vɛ] in oneʰs hand
C. "Verb + 兒" There are two uses. Then first occurs when [-ɛ] is added to a verb to form a noun; the second occurs when [-ɛ] is added to a verb, which for the most part is like Beijing dialect placing 了 {le} after a verb, at which place the reading '了' is used. For example
夾兒 [kap1 -pɛ] forceps
刨兒 [pʰau1 -ʋɛ] wood-plane
鑿兒 [tsʰɔk5 -ɛ] chisel
去兒 [hi5355 -iɛ] gone
寫兒 [sia31 -ɛ] written
轉來兒 [tsɔn31 lɔi11 -iɛ] returned, came back
D. "Noun + Verb + 兒" to form a noun. For example:
燈罩兒 [tɛn4435 tsau5355 -ʋɛ] lamp shade
筆套兒 [pit1 tʰau5355 -ʋɛ] pen set
耳爬兒 [n31 pʰa11 -ʋɛ] ear pickE. "Verb + Noun + 兒" has two forms, and used differently. (I) "Verb + (Noun + 兒)", creates a Verb-Object construct 造成動賓結構. (II) "(Verb + Noun) + 兒" forms a Verb-Object contruct plus 了, indicating the action has been completed, this 兒 is often written as 了. For instance:
I
做狀兒 [tsɔ5355 tsʰɔŋ5355 -ŋɛ] writing a statement
II
赴墟兒 [fu53 hi4435 -iɛ] going to market
洗身兒 [sɛ31 sən4435 -nɛ] to wash oneself, take a bath
食飯兒 [sət5 fan5355 -nɛ] have dinner, eat a mealF. "Verb + 等 + 兒" indicates that an action is currently ongoing, for the most part it is similar to Beijing dialect addition of 著 to verbs, which must be followed immediately by an object 賓語. For example:
食等兒飯 [sət5 tɛn31 -nɛ fan53] is eating a meal
看等兒書 [kʰɔn5355 tɛn31 -nɛ su44] is reading a bookMeixian "等兒" can also be prounced "町地" tʰaŋ5355 tʰi53, this is not usually written down, so we guess "町地" is the spelling. 食等兒飯 would then be 食町地飯 sət5 tʰaŋ5355 tʰi53 fan53. 町地 tʰaŋ5355 tʰi53 is used in Meixian speech , but it rarely seen in other dialects.
G. "單音形容詞重疊 Monosyllabic adjective overlap + 兒" used to form the predicate 謂語 and adverbial (-modifier) 狀語. Examples regarding in the formation of the predicate:
面紅紅兒 [miɛn5355 fuŋ11 fuŋ11 -ŋɛ] rosy cheeked, red faced
葉兒嫩嫩兒 [iap5 -pɛ nun5355 nun5355 -nɛ] the leaf was soft and tenderExamples regarding in the formation of the adverbial:
慢慢兒行 [man5355 man5355 -nɛ haŋ11] walk slowly
定定兒想 [tʰin5355 tʰin5355 -nɛ siɔŋ31] thought purposefully
A.捱有寫信分佢.
[ŋai44 iu44 sia31 sin53 pin44 ki11]
I have written a letter to him.佢有來電話.
[ki11 iu44 lɔi11 tiɛn5355 fa53]
I have been telephoned.你有話佢知無?
[n11 iu11 fa53 ki11 ti44 mɔ11]
Have you let him know yet?
B.
捱寫有信分佢.
[ŋai11 sia31 iu44 sin53 pin44 ki11]
I wrote him a letter.佢買有木瓜了.
[ki11 mai44 iu44 muk1 ka4435 -ɛ]
I bought the guava.你做有衫褲無?
[n11 tsɔ53 iu44 sam4435 fu53 mɔ11]
Have you made some clothes yet?
3. Mexian dialect comparatives 比較語 can be summed in three points:
A. Using "比" and "過" to indicate comparison. For example:
捱比佢過會食.
[ŋai11 pi31 n11 kuɔ53 ʋɔi5355 sit5]
I, compared to you, am better at eating.坐到了食比較徛到了食過好.
[tsʰɔ44 tau5355 -ɛ sit5 pi31 kau31 kʰi44 tau5355 -ɛ sit5 kuɔ53 hau31]
Sitting down to eat is better than standing to eat.捱個屋無比你個屋過好.
[ŋai11 ke53 ʋuk1 mɔ11 pi31 n11 ʋuk1 kuɔ53 hau31]
My house is not as fine your house.
B. Using "過" to indicate conparison. For example:
二妹高過大妹.
[ni5355 mɔi53 kau4435 kuɔ5355 tʰai5355 mɔi53]
Second sister is taller than eldest sister.捱行路快過你.
[ŋai11 haŋ11 lu5355 kuai53 kuɔ5355 n11]
I am walking this road faster than you.你肥過佢好多.
[n11 pʰui11 kuɔ5355 ki11 hau31 tɔ44]
You are a lot fatter than he is.
C. Using "當 [tɔŋ53] ... 唔得" or "當得 ... 到" to indicate comparison. For example:
老王做事當阿強唔得.
[lau31 vɔŋ11 tsɔ5355 su5355 tɔŋ5355 a44 kʰiɔŋ11 m11 tɛt1]
Old Vong's working habits does not surpass A Kiong.你當佢一半唔得.
[n11 tɔŋ5355 ki11 it1 pan5355 m44 tet1]
You aren't half of what he is.捱個本事哪兒當你到?
[ŋai11 kɛ53 pun31 su53 nai5355 tɔŋ5355 n11 tau31]
My ability cannot compare to yours.
This original in Chinese traditional characters can be found on pages 16 - 22 from 梅縣方音詞典 Meixian Dialect Dictionary edited by 李榮 Li Rong and 黃雪貞 Huang XueZhen, 1995, 江蘇教育出版社 JiangSu Educational Publishers.
I've kept as much of the linguistic terms in as possible, but as I am self taught in Chinese, my translation may be a little laboured at times. Some background in phonology is required and also traditional Chinese philology especially the She rhymes and initials.
In syllables with tone sandhi, they are given with four numbers, for example; 樣兒 Niɔŋ5355 -Ne, the first syllable has four numbers after it. The first two numbers represent the original tone, whilst the latter represents the tone after sandhi, in effect, the tone can be though of as the first and last digits of the four digit tone contour. The following syllable is not given a tone, and can be thought of as being unstressed.
The piece neglects to explain why there are ancient Qu syllable characters in modern Shang Sheng in Meixian. In other sources, it merely states that for the most part, modern Qu tone characters retain their correspondence with the ancient Qu tones. I will need to have a look at this.
This page was created on Saturday 18th August 2001.
It was recently updated on Wednesday 22nd August 2001.